Manipulationstechniken entlarvt: Kann unsere Intelligenz durch Priming oder Placeboeffekte manipuliert werden?


Sag mal ganz schnell hintereinander: "Blut, Blut, Blut, Blut, Blut, Blut, Blut..."
Und bei welcher Farbe gehst du über die Ampel? "Rot. Ahhh..."

Viele kennen dieses oder ähnliche Spielchen, aber nur wenige kennen den psychologischen Effekt, der uns falsch Antworten lässt: Priming
(z.B. Hopkins et al., 1968).
Beim Priming werden neuronale Netzwerke bestimmter Begriffe oder Konzepte "vorgeglüht" (to prime = vorbereiten).
Da manche Konzepte im Gehirn besonders eng miteinander assoziiert sind, kann die Aktivierung des einen Konzepts (z.B. "Blut"), die Aktivierung eines anderen vorbereiten ("Rot").
Aber wie groß sind die Effekte des Primings wirklich? Kann z.B. schon allein das Nachdenken über einen Professor unsere Intelligenz steigern?
Und: Welche Effekte können Placebos auf unsere geistige Leistungsfähigkeit haben?

Keywords:
Priming = neuronales Vorglühen - Dijksterhuis - Allgemeinwissenstest - Professor-Priming - Sekretärinnen-Priming - je länger das Priming, desto größer der Effekt - Hooligan-Priming - David Shanks - fehlgeschlagener Replikationsversuch - Gründe? - zu viel Lärm? - zu schwierige Tests - Falsche Positive - Publication Bias - Diederik Stapel - gefälschte Daten - Forschungsbetrug - Placebo-Effekte - Ulrich Weger -(vermeindliches) subliminales Priming - kleine Stichprobe

Schlaf und Intelligenz_Gedächtnis Rechtsklick zum mp3-Download, dann "Ziel speichern unter..."
(24,6 MB) Länge: 26:47 Min.
Falls Sie gleich mehrere Episoden herunterladen wollen, ohne jede Seite einzeln aufrufen zu müssen, können Sie entweder das RSS-Feed oder i-Tunes nutzen.


 

Studien_Schlaf_Intelligenz_GedächtnisBesprochene Studien:


Text_Link Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (1998) The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 865–877. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.4.865.


4 Priming-Experimente:


Experiment 1:

- Versuchspersonen: 60 Studenten der Universität Nijmegen (Holland)

- drei experimentelle Bedingungen :

1) Professor-Priming
2) Sekretärinnen-Priming (aktive Kontrollgruppe)
3) keine Priming (passive Kontrollgruppe)


danach : Allgemeinwissenstest (42 Fragen des Spiels Trivial Pursuit)
-> Was ist die Hauptstadt von Bangladesch?
a) Dhaka b) Hanoi, c) Yangon d) Bangkok

Ergebnisse:



Basierend auf Daten von:
 Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (1998) The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 865–877. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.4.865.



Experiment 2:

- Versuchspersonen: 58 Studenten der Universität Nijmegen

- Drei experimentelle Bedingungen:




Basierend auf Daten von: Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (1998) The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 865–877. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.4.865.




Experiment 3:

- Versuchspersonen: 95 Studenten der Universität Nijmegen

- Drei experimentelle Bedingungen:



Basierend auf Daten von: Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (1998) The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 865–877. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.4.865.




Text_Link Shanks DR, Newell BR , Lee EH , Balakrishnan D, L Ekelund , Cenac Z , Kavvadia F, C. Moore (2013) . Priming Intelligent Behavior: An Elusive Phenomenon. PLoS One. 2013 Apr 24; 8 (4): e56515 . doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056515.


Experiment 1 + 2:

- Professor-Priming vs. Hooligan-Priming

=> Keine Auswirkungen des Primings auf die Ergebnisse in den Raven-Matrizen (fluide Intelligenz)


Experiment 3 (N = 44) und Experiment 4 (N = 100)

- Professor-Priming vs. Hooligan-Priming

- Allgemeinwissenstest

- Priming-Dauer:

> 9 Minuten in Experiment 3
> 5 Minuten in Experiment 4


Ergebnisse für Experiment 4 (p = .28 , nicht signifikant):



Basierend auf Daten von: Shanks DR, Newell BR , Lee EH , Balakrishnan D, L Ekelund , Cenac Z , Kavvadia F, C. Moore (2013). Priming Intelligent Behavior: An Elusive Phenomenon. PLoS One. 2013 Apr 24; 8 (4): e56515 . doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056515.




Warum konnten die Ergebnisse von Dijksterhuis und van Knippenberg nicht repliziert werden?

Dijksterhuis:
- Zu viel Lärm
- Zu schwierige Tests (Selbstwirksamkeit kann nicht moderierend wirken)
...

Shanks:
- Erwartungseffekte? (aber Versuch 6 spricht gegen diese Hypothese )
- Falsche Positive (Publication Bias)
- "Freiheitsgrad des Forschers" (post-hoc Auswahl von Daten)
...


 
Text_Link Weger UW , Loughnan S. (2012). Mobilizing unused resources: using the placebo concept to enhance cognitive performance. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Hove). 2013; 66 (1) :23- 8. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2012.751117. Epub 2012 13. Dezember.

- 40 Versuchspersonen
- Allgemeinwissenstest (wie bei Dijksterhuis 1998)
- Zum Beispiel: Wie hoch ist die Zahl " Pi "?

2 Gruppen:

a) (vermeindliches) subliminales Priming (Placebo)

> warm-up phase
> calibration phase
> experimental phase ("on some level you already know the answer")


b) Kontrollgruppe

> warm-up phase
> calibration phase
> experimental phase ("the flash indicates the beginning of a new trial")



 

- möglicher Erklärungsansatz: reduzierte Angst/ weniger Stress




Zum Nachlesen und Vertiefen:






Schlaf und Intelligenz_Gedächtnis

mp3- Links:

Download_Audio_mp3 Funkkolleg Psychologie: Intelligenz

Download_Audio_mp3 Priming - Unkontrollierte Wahrnehmung

Download_Audio_mp3 Fälschung und Betrug in der Psychologie


Video- Links:

Video_Filmstreifen Nano: Placebo- Effekt (Fabrizio Benedetti)

Video_Filmstreifen Is there scientific proof we can heal ourselves? Lissa Rankin, MD

Video_Filmstreifen Treating Depression: Is there a placebo effect? 

Video_Filmstreifen Placebo: Cracking the Code

Video_Filmstreifen Diederik Stapel on the BrainTrain

Video_Filmstreifen How To Prevent Fraud in Research 

Video_Filmstreifen Studien-Betrug an der Uni - Ist das ein Einzelfall?

Video_Filmstreifen Quarks und Co. - Pfusch in der Wissenschaft



 

 

 

 

Schlaf und Intelligenz_GedächtnisLiteratur:

Anderson, C., & Horne, J. A. (2008). Placebo response to caffeine improves reaction time performance in sleepy people. Human Psychopharmacology, 23, 333–336.

Bakker M, Wicherts JM (2011) The (mis)reporting of statistical results in psychology journals. Behavior Research Methods 43: 666–678. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0089-5.

Bargh JA, Huang JY (2009) The selfish goal. In: Moskowitz GB, Grant H, editors. The psychology of goals. New York: Guilford. pp. 127–150.

Bargh JA, Chen M, Burrows L (1996) Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71: 230–244. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.71.2.230.

Baumeister RF, Masicampo EJ, Vohs KD (2011) Do conscious thoughts cause behavior? Annual Review of Psychology 62: 331–361. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131126.

Text_Link Bensing, J. M., & Verheul, W. (2010). The silent healer: The role of communication in placebo effects. Patient Education and Counselling, 80,293–299.

Text_Link Bhalla M, Proffitt DR (1999) Visual-motor recalibration in geographical slant perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 25: 1076–1096. doi: 10.1037//0096-1523.25.4.1076.

Text_Link Bertamini M, Munafò MR (2012) Bite-size science and its undesired side effects. Perspectives on Psychological Science 7: 67–71. doi: 10.1177/1745691611429353.

Text_Link Bry C, Follenfant A, Meyer T (2008) Blonde like me: When self-construals moderate stereotype priming effects on intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44: 751–757. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2007.06.005.

Text_Link Bry C, Gabarrot F, Toma C (2011) The blond, the dumb and the ugly: Does self-stereotyping mediate prime-to-behavior effects? Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis 8: 9–19.

Carlin SP, Standing LG. (2013. Is intelligence enhanced by letter priming? A failure to replicate the results of Ciani and Sheldon (2010). Psychol Rep. 2013 Apr;112(2):533-44.

Ciani KD, Sheldon KM. (2010). A versus F: the effects of implicit letter priming on cognitive performance. Br J Educ Psychol. 2010 Mar; 80(Pt 1):99-119. Epub 2009 Jul 21.

Colagiuri, B., Livesey, E. J., & Harris, J. A. (2011). Can expectancies produce placebo effects for implicit learning? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 399–405.

Colloca, L., & Miller, F. G. (2011). How placebo responses are formed: A learning perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366,1859–1869.

Text_Link Crum, A. J., & Langer, E. J. (2007). Mind-set matters: Exercise and the placebo effect. Psychological Science, 18,165–171.

Dijksterhuis A. (2013). Reproducibility: Priming-effect author responds. Nature. 2013 Jun 20;498(7454):299. doi: 10.1038/498299e.

Text_Link Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (1998) The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 865–877. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.4.865.

Dijksterhuis A, Spears R, Postmes T, Stapel DA, Koomen W, et al. (1998) Seeing one thing and doing another: Contrast effects in automatic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75: 862–871. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.75.4.862.

Dijksterhuis A, van Knippenberg A (2000) Behavioral indecision: Effects of self-focus on automatic behavior. Social Cognition 18: 55–74. doi: 10.1521/soco.2000.18.1.55.

Text_Link Doyen S, Klein O, Pichon C-L, Cleeremans A (2012) Behavioral priming: It's all in the mind, but whose mind? PLoS One 7: e29081. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029081.

Text_Link Durgin FH, Baird JA, Greenburg M, Russell R, Shaughnessy K, et al. (2009) Who is being deceived? The experimental demands of wearing a backpack. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 16: 964–968. doi: 10.3758/PBR.16.5.964.

Eder A, Leipert C, Musch J, Klauer K-C (2012, August 10) Failed replication to prime intelligent behavior. http://www.PsychFileDrawer.org/replication.php?attempt=MTI0 .

Text_Link Forbes, C. E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Retraining attitudes and stereotypes to affect motivation and cognitive capacity under stereotype threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99,740–754.

Text_Link Francis G (2012) Too good to be true: Publication bias in two prominent studies from experimental psychology. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 19: 151–156. doi: 10.3758/s13423-012-0227-9.

Text_Link Geers, A. L., Weiland, P. E., Kosbab, K., Landry, S. J., & Helfer, S. G. (2005). Goal activation, expectations, and the placebo effect.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89,143–159.

Text_Link Greenwald AG, Spangenberg ER, Pratkanis AR, Eskenazi J (1991). Double blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psychological Science 2: 119–122. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00112.x.

Hansen J, Wänke M (2009) Think of capable others and you can make it! Self-efficacy mediates the effect of stereotype activation on behavior. Social Cognition 27: 76–88. doi: 10.1521/soco.2009.27.1.76.

Hoffman, B. & Spatariu, A. (2008). The influence of self-efficacy and metacognitive prompting on math problem-solving efficiency Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33 (4), 875-893

Text_Link Hrobjartsson, A., & Gotzsche, P. C. (2010). Placebo interventions for all clinical conditions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, CD003974.

Text_Link IJzerman, Hans and Padiotis, Nikos and Koole, Sander L., Replicability of Social-Cognitive Priming: The Case of Weight as an Embodiment of Importance (April 23, 2013). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2255726 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2255726

Text_Link IJzerman, H., Gallucci, M., Pouw, W. T. J. L., Weissgerber, S. C., Van Doesum, N. J., & Williams, K. D. (2012). Cold-blooded loneliness: Social exclusion leads to lower finger temperatures. Acta Psychologica.

IJzerman, H., & Semin, G. R. (2009). The thermometer of social relations: Mapping social proximity on temperature. Psychological Science.

Text_Link Jostmann, N.B., D. Lakens, and T.W. Schubert, Weight as an embodiment of importance. Psychological Science, 2009. 20(9): p. 1169-1174.

Text_Link Kaptchuk, T. J., Friedlander, E., Kelley, J. M., Sanchez, M. N., Kokkotou, E., et al. (2010). Placebos without Deception: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. PLoS ONE, 5(12), e15591.

LeBoeuf RA, Estes Z (2004) “Fortunately, I'm no Einstein”: Comparison relevance as a determinant of behavioral assimilation and contrast. Social Cognition 22: 607–636. doi: 10.1521/soco.22.6.607.54817.

Loersch C, Payne BK (2011) The situated inference model: An integrative account of the effects of primes on perception, behavior, and motivation. Perspectives on Psychological Science 6: 234–252. doi: 10.1177/1745691611406921.

Lowery BS, Eisenberger NI, Hardin CD, Sinclair S (2007) Long-term effects of subliminal priming on academic performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 29: 151–157. doi: 10.1080/01973530701331718.

Moseley JB, O’Malley K, Petersen NJ,  5. et  al.  A  controlled  trial  of  arthroscopic  surgery  for osteoarthritis  of  the  knee.  N Engl J Med 2002;347:81-8.

Text_Link Newell BR, Shanks DR (in press) Unconscious influences on decision making: A critical review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

Text_Link Newell BR, Wong KY, Cheung JCH, Rakow T (2009) Think, blink or sleep on it? The impact of modes of thought on complex decision making. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 62: 707–732. doi: 10.1080/17470210802215202.

Nguyen H-HD, Ryan AM (2008) Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology 93: 1314–1334. doi: 10.1037/a0012702.

Parker, S., Garry, M., Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2011). A sham drug improves a demanding prospective memory task. Memory, 19,606–612.

Pautasso M (2010) Worsening file-drawer problem in the abstracts of natural, medical and social science databases. Scientometrics 85: 193–202. doi: 10.1007/s11192-010-0233-5.

Text_Link Pratte MS, Rouder JN (2009) A task-difficulty artifact in subliminal priming. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 71: 1276–1283. doi: 10.3758/APP.71.6.1276.

Text_Link Price, D. D., Finniss, D. G., & Benedetti, F. (2008). A comprehensive review of the placebo effect: Recent advances and current thought. Annual Review of Psychology, 59,565–590.

Roberts MS, Crooks W, Kolody TJ, Pavlovic T, Rombola KJ, et al.. (2013, January 01) No effect on intelligence from priming. http://www.PsychFileDrawer.org/replicati​on.php?attempt=MTQz.

Schubert TW, Häfner M (2003) Contrast from social stereotypes in automatic behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39: 577–584. doi: 10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00034-9.

Shanks DR, Newell BR , Lee EH , Balakrishnan D, L Ekelund , Cenac Z , Kavvadia F, C. Moore (2013) . Priming Intelligent Behavior: An Elusive Phenomenon. PLoS One. 2013 Apr 24; 8 (4): e56515 . doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056515.

Simmons JP, Nelson LD, Simonsohn U (2011) False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science 22: 1359–1366. doi: 10.1177/0956797611417632.

Sliwinski J, Elkins GR. (2013). Enhancing placebo effects: insights from social psychology.    Am J Clin Hypn. 2013 Jan;55(3):236-48.

Smeesters D, Wheeler SC, Kay AC (2010) Indirect prime-to-behavior effects: The role of perceptions of the self, others, and situations in connecting primed constructs to social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 42: 259–317. doi: 10.1016/s0065-2601(10)42005-5.

Smeesters D, Liu J (2011) The effect of color (red versus blue) on assimilation versus contrast in prime-to-behavior effects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47: 653–656. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.11.016.

Spellman BA (2012) Introduction to the special section: Data, data, everywhere … especially in my file drawer. Perspectives on Psychological Science 7: 58–59. doi: 10.1177/1745691611432124.

Stanforth, D., Steinhardt, M., Mackert, M., Stanforth, P. R., & Gloria, C. T. (2011). An investigation of exercise and the placebo effect. American Journal of Health Behavior, 35,257–268.

Text_Link Steele CM, Aronson J (1995) Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69: 797–811. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797.

Text_Link Stewart-Williams, S., & Podd, J. (2004). The placebo effect: Dissolving the expectancy versus conditioning debate. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 324–340.

Text_Link Tulving E, Schacter DL (1990) Priming and human memory systems. Science 247: 301–306. doi: 10.1126/science.2296719.

Text_Link Wagenmakers E-J, Wetzels R, Borsboom D, van der Maas HL (2011) Why psychologists must change the way they analyze their data: The case of psi: Comment on Bem (2011). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100: 426–432. doi: 10.1037/a0022790.

Weger UW , Loughnan S. (2012).  Mobilizing unused resources: using the placebo concept to enhance cognitive performance. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Hove). 2013; 66 (1) :23- 8. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2012.751117. Epub 2012 13. Dezember.

Wheeler SC, Petty RE (2001) The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin 127: 797–826. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.127.6.797.